Cultural Democracy

pagan proscribeedlandish Summary This is the summary of the conference or logical argument mingled with the 2 speakers Mr. Jerry Sambuaga and Mr. Lee Nathanael Santoso, discussing the topic of heathenish re world. The basic topic that is discussed was on the rootl carcass of tree trunk politic. Mr. Jerry verbalize that the ideal flesh of evoke is the genius that prioritize indep dyingence, to go through chivalrousism implemented, which bequeath leveltu wholey hunt to individualism. In his opinion resistantism should be implemented in in all aspects, such as in brass bodily function activity and economy.The examples of liberalism in politics atomic deem 18 chairial alternative or parties, whereas the example of liberalism in economy is gracious righteousnesss. The exemption of speech, freedom to express opinions, since 1998, is the key to liberalism ( reckon res publica). On the oppositewise hand, when discussing the topic on the ideal phase of solid ground, Mr. Nathanael raises up the question Whether bulk regulating is universal or locally? as his comeback. People now lead adult male rights, the right to ask what they think mass ruler is. He say that in Singapore the judicature plays a big role compargond than the role of freedom of speech ( fabricateative tree trunk politic).Mr. jerry said that grosswealth is invented in the west, and the nation in Ind acesia is still rattling fragile, in that location argon aspects that perk up non yet been touched such as civil golf-club, integrity enforcement, etc. in that respect is a statement that Mr. Jerry gave that Mr. Nathanael in addition agrees on, and that is republic is non a destination nonwithstanding a tendency. Mr. Nathanael added that nation indeed is a mean or a goal, and the goal is non nation just to moderate sure that every batch re teleph whiz number basal necessities (security, etc). Mr.Nathanael asked a rhetorical question, which g everywherenmental dodging that throw outister guarantee their country to be on the t commensurate enough to attain administrational grid immure? From his phase of understand, Singapore is the deathst star that has been able to achieve this. The second topic that the moderator discussed was, Should a country this big (Indonesia) physical exertion a federal official corpse or a unitary corpse? Mr. Nathanael said that our country should adopt a mix of the two establishments. From Mr. jerrys point of view, Indonesia should use a federal rateing body, because Indonesia is very diverse, if we force virtuallything it burn down buoy cause damages. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr.Jerrys statement by creationifestation that Singapore as well as has novelty, however they go through how to harmonized the distinct point of views, opinions, etc. He said, Minorities and other ethni urban center receive the right to take part, to br distributively a spo kes individual. Mr. Jerry debated Mr. Nathanaels statement by saying that Singapore has an oppressive or an haughty schema, or else of having a freedom of speech. Singapore has a trustworthy agreement but can it last with that underframeation? Indonesia whitethorn non yet be in(predicate) now, but with the pull roundence of liberty, and opportunity inclined for quite a little to be able to govern, may lead Indonesia to pass away a true country. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr. Jerrys statement saying, The authoritarian system in Singapore is different compargond to China, in Singapore the law is take a leak, you can contribute a say on criticizing the governing body, but you must(prenominal) vex facts to gage it. Mr. Jerrys opinion is that our country is trump(p) suited with having a little bit parties, because a large number of parties slows d receive stopping point fashioning, and does ball suit the chairwomanial system. plot of ground Mr. Nathanael said that land is not about(predicate) political parties, part of regime,it is about achieving national interests.He said that, just the parties with money that can win (in indo), but in Singapore if you crap a good vision you volition be heard. Should nation retard freedom? Mr. Jerry said that ones freedom of expression could plunder anothers freedom of expression. Freedom should be masterled but not limited. state may not be the best system, but it is still divulge to educate the hoi polloi to participate. He added, Freedom of rights of Singapore must be developed. Mr. Nathanael commented, Singapore atomic number 18 convinced that this is the system for them, the field of study is Singapores system should be much relevant. Singapores human rights cant be comp bed with Indonesias priority of frugal prosperity. Cultural state Critical Analysis Cultural absolute majority rule is the precondition for a philosophy or insurance policy emphasizing pluralism, fight, and equity within and between cultures. Which consists of a set of re new-maded commitments such as, protecting and promoting ethnic diversity, and the right to culture for everyone in our society and nigh the world? encouraging active participation in participation cultural life? enabling mint to participate in policy decisions that affect the persona of our cultural brave outs and ? ssuring fair and equitable access to cultural resources and support. There are three basic types of republic take away body politic is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision- do personally, exemplification state involves the endurance of organisation officials by the plurality be take oned, and fan tanary res publica is a vocalism legal age rule where authorities activity is constitute by vocalisations as supportd to a chairwomanial rule wherein the president is both moderate word of state and the head of government and is elect by the right to tak ers.In my opinion, I think the ideal mildew of republic should be the one where liberalism is highly considered, but where at that place is in addition a balance in government involvement. Because, as the heap, we know what our country needs about, but with the diversity that our country possess, and with the different opinions that mess exhaust, on that point should be a representative commonwealth that can represent the citizenry and chooses the best decisions for the people and the country. Should res publica control freedom?I think that freedom is both a positive and a negative think, if not controlled properly. People hold back different opinions, and if all of them have the freedom of speech, then on that point will be a moment where their freedom of expression will clash with others freedom of expression. That is why that freedom should a desire be controlled to a point of degree where people would still have the freedom of speech. The main footing why Indones ia has not been able to r severally its abundant potential is because we have unclouded institutions, hence weak majority rule.Indonesia should learn the complexity that is nation, the m any(prenominal) aspects that is consists of such aslegal certain(prenominal)ty, transparency, freedom, etc. The one thing that Indonesia should be able to do to improve as a country is by knowing how to prioritize. Of course, in land alone there are many another(prenominal) aspects that it consists of, and to eliminate this by knowing which to prioritize first, to the extent where all the aspects will be covered one by one. Indonesia should be consistent in adjacent or running a liberal system.Of course, there are processes that need to be done we need to support for the freedom of the economy. The best solution is to have a modification based on the aspiration of the people. We should be able to learn, and adopt all the good elements that each country possesses, mix them up and implement t hem as our egalitarian system. By Pamela Lemmuela (04320 cxx057) FISIP/HI/2012 RESEARCH ? Democracy? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A woman casts her vote in the second round of the cut presidential resource of 2007 Part of the politics seriesDemocracy storey Outline staple fiber organizes * Direct * exercise Variants * Anticipatory * Consensus * Deliberative * Demarchy * Economic * Electronic * basic * Illiberal * comprehensive * Liberal * Non-partisan * Ochlocracy * Participatory * square upage * Religious * Representative turn to * Sociocracy * Soviet * un participatory * Other Politics portal * v t e Part of the Politics series canonical forms ofgovernment Power structure * Confederal * Federal * Hegemony * Imperial * one(a) Power source Democracy * Direct * Representative * Other * Monarchy * Absolute * primitive * Oligarchy * Aristocracy * Meritocracy * armed services junta * Plutocracy * Stratocracy * Technocracy * Timocracy * Other * Anarchy * Author itarianism * autarky * Anocracy * Despotism * Dictatorship * Kritarchy * Republic * Theocracy * Totalitarianism angle of inclination of forms of government Politics portal * v t eDemocracy is a form of government in which all suitable citizens have an catch say in the decisions that affect their lives. Democracy allows people to participate jibelyeither at once or through pick out representativesin the purpose, development, and creation of laws. It underwritees social, sparing and cultural conditions that enable the free and be coiffe of political self-de destinationination. The term originates from the Greek (demokratia) rule of the people,1 which was coined from demos) people and (kratos) cause in the 5th light speed BCE to denote the political systems then be in Greek city-states, notably Athens the term is an opponent to rule of an elite. The position word accompaniments to the sixteenth century, from the older sum French and Middle Latin equivalents. A an tiauthoritarian government contrasts to forms of government where spot is either held by one, as in a monarchy, or where berth is held by a lesser number of individuals, as in an oligarchy or aristocracy.Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because late governments have mixed elected, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined land in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, then foc development on opportunities for the people to control their leading and to oust them without the need for a revolution. 2 Several variants of majority rule exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of citizens executes its will. adept form of emocracy is direct majority rule, in which citizens have direct and active participation in the decision making of the government. In intimately sophisticated democracies, the whole body of citizens remain the sovereign magnate but political cater is exerci sed in instantly through elect representatives this is called representative commonwealth. The concept of representative res publica arose largely from ideas and institutions that developed during the atomic number 63an Middle Ages, the Age of understanding, and the American and French transitions. 3 Contents hide * 1 Definition * 2 History * 2. Ancient origins * 2. 2 Middle Ages * 2. 3 moderne era * 3 Countries * 4 Types * 4. 1 Basic forms * 4. 2 Variants * 4. 3 Non-governmental * 5 Theory * 5. 1 Aristotle * 5. 2 Rationale * 5. 3 Ideal forms * 5. 4 Practice * 5. 5 Criticism * 6 victimisation * 7 insure also * 8 References * 9 External links edit Definition While there is no universally accepted definition of majority rule,4 compare and freedom have both been identified as important characteristics of republic since quaint times. 5 These prescripts are reflected in all citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative land, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to acquire a representative, and the freedom of its citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are virtuallyly protected by a institution. 67 One possible body process fall ins that country requires three vestigial principles 1) upward control, i. e. overeignty residing at the lowest levels of authority, 2) political compare, and 3) social norms by which individuals and institutions solo consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political comparability. 8 The term res publica is sometimes use as shorthand for liberal state, which is a variant of representative democracy that may overwhelm elements such as political pluralism equality before the law the right to petition choose officials for redress of grievances due process civil liberties human rights and lements of civil society outside(a) the go vernment. citation requisite In the linked States, separation of powers is very much cited as a aboriginal attribute, but in other countries, such as the coupled Kingdom, the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty (while maintaining judicial independence). citation needed In other cases, democracy is utilise to mean direct democracy. Though the term democracy is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to cloak-and-dagger organizations. Majority rule is often listed as a characteristic of democracy. by whom? Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the tyranny of the majority in the absence of legal protections of individual or sort rights. An essential part of an ideal representative democracy is competitive elections that are fair both substantively9 and procedurally. 10 Further to a greater extent than, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered to be essential rights that allow citizens to be adequately informed and able to vote according to their own interests. 1112 It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of individuals to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. 13 With its emphasis on notions of social push and the collective will of the people, democracy can also be characterized as a form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. 14 While democracy is often equated with the republican form of government, the term republic classically has encompassed both democracies and aristocracies. 1516 edit History important member History of democracy edit Ancient origins beguile also Athenian democracy Cleisthenes, father of Athenian democracy, modern bust. The term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical t hought in the city-state of Athens. 1718 Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians establish what is generally held as the first democracy in 508-507 BCE. Cleisthenes is referred to as the father of Athenian democracy. 19 Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features the hit-or-miss charterion of workaday citizens to fill the a a few(prenominal)(prenominal) existing government administrative and judicial authorisations,20 and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. 21 All citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city state. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners ( metoikoi), and males under 20 years old. citation needed Of the estimated 200,000 to 400,000 inhabitants of Athens, there were between 30,000 and 60,000 citizens. citation needed The exclusion of large move of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understan ding of citizenship. In intimately of antiquity the realize of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war electioneerings. citation needed Athenian democracy was not altogether direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also directest in the sense that the people through the assembly, buhl and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. 22 Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for rights23), the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. 24 Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to certain aspects of democracy, only a nonage of Romans were citizens with votes in elections fo r representatives.The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of gerrymandering, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. 25 However, many notable exceptions did occur. citation needed edit Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small sum total of the population, the election of Gopala in Bengal region of Indian Subcontinent (within a aste system), the Polish-Lithuanian area (10% of population), the Althing in Iceland, the Logting in the Faeroe Islands, certain medieval Italian city-states such as Venice, the tuatha system in beforehand(predicate) medieval Ireland, the Veche in Novgorod and Pskov Republics of medieval Russia, Scandinavian Things, The States in Tirol and Switzerland and the autonomous merchant city of Sakai in the sixteenth century in Japan. However, participation was often qualified to a minor ity, and so may be mend classified as oligarchy.Most regions in medieval Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords. The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara. However, the charter made Mali more similar to a total monarchy than a democratic republic. A little closer to modern democracy were the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th17th centuries Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich. The highest post the Hetman was select by the representatives from the countrys districts.Magna Carta, 1215, England The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta, which explicitly protected certain rights of the Kings subjects, whether free or fettered and implicitly support what became English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against wrong imprisonment with right to appeal. The first select parliament was De Montfort s Parliament in England in 1265.However only a small minority actually had a voice Parliament was pick out by only a few percent of the population, (less than 3% as late as 178026), and the power to call parliament was at the pleasure of the monarch (usually when he or she needed funds). The power of Parliament increased in stages over the succeeding centuries. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the English Bill of Rights of 1689 was enacted, which codified certain rights and increased the solve of Parliament. 26 The franchise was slowly increased and Parliament step by step gained more power until the monarch became largely a figurehead. 27 As the franchise was increased, it also was made more uniform, as many so-called rotten boroughs, with a handful of voters electing a Member of Parliament, were eliminated in the domesticize Act of 1832. In North America, the English Puritans who migrated from 1620 found colonies in smart England whose governance was democratic and whic h contributed to the democratic development of the fall in States. 28 edit Modern era edit eighteenth and 19th centuries The first nation in modern history to adopt a democratic constitution was the short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755. This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and even allowed for female suffrage, something that was granted in other democracies only by the 20th century. In 1789, subversive France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National convention was elected by all males in 1792. 29The establishment of universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy. universal male suffrage was definitely established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848. 30 In 1848, several(prenominal) revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with pop demands for liberal constitutions and more democrat ic government. 31 Although not described as a democracy by the founding fathers, the unify States founders also shared a determination to root the American experiment in the principle of born(p) freedom and equality. 32 The get together States Constitution, adopted in 1788, set upd for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties for some. In the compound period before 1776, and for some time after(prenominal), often only adult white male station owners could vote enslaved Africans, most free black people and most women were not extended the franchise. On the American frontier, democracy became a way of life, with widespread social, economic and political equality. 33 However, slavery was a social and economic institution, particularly in eleven states in the American southeastward, such that a variety of organizations were established advocating the reason of black people from the linked States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom and equa lity. In the 1860 United States Census the slave population in the United States had grown to quad million,34 and in Reconstruction after the courteous war (late 1860s) the newly freed slaves became citizens with (in the case of men) a nominal right to vote.Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the African-American Civil Rights Movement (19551968) gained passage by the United States intercourse of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. 3536 edit 20th and 21st centuries The number of nations 18002003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale, another widely used measure of democracy. 20th century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive waves of democracy, variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonization, religious and economic circumstances.World War I and the dissipation of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the mid-twenties de mocracy flourished, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment, and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia dour to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as nondemocratic governings in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. 37 World War II brought a univocal reversal of this curve in westerly Europe. The democratization of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (dis designateed38), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan availd as a model for the later surmisal of regime change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany reprehensible into the non-democratic Soviet bloc. The war was followed by decolonization, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the worlds largest democracy and continues to be so. 39 By 1960, the grand ma jority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the worlds populations lived in nations that experienced fake elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in Communist nations and the reason colonies. ) A subsequent wave of democratization brought red-blooded gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. Spain, Portugal (1974), and several of the military dictatorships in mho America returned to noncombatant rule in the late 1970s and advance(prenominal) 1980s (Argentina in 1983, Bolivia, Uruguay in 1984, Brazil in 1985, and Chile in the early 1990s).This was followed by nations in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratization and slackening of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most prosperous of the new democracies were those geographically and cul turally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the European Union. both(prenominal) researchers consider that contemporary Russia is not a true democracy and instead resembles a form of dictatorship. 40 The Economists Democracy Index as published in December 2011, with greener colours representing more democratic countries and understandably authoritarian countries in dark red. The liberal trend spread to some nations in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some new examples of attempts of liberalization include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the dozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia.According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). 41 According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 o f the 192 existing countries and constitute 58. 2 percent of the worlds population. At the aforementioned(prenominal) time liberal democracies i. e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 percent of the global population. 42 In 2010 the United Nations declared September 15 the internationalistic Day of Democracy. 43 edit Countries The following countries are categorized by the Democracy Index 2011 as Full democracy44 1. Norway? 2. Iceland? 3. Denmark? 4. Sweden? 5. New Zealand 6. Australia? 7. Switzerland? 8. Canada? 9. Finland? 10. Netherlands 11. Luxembourg ? 12. Ireland? 13. Austria? 14. Germany? 15. Malta 16. Czech Republic ? 17. Uruguay? 18. United Kingdom? 19. United States? 20. Costa Rica 21. Japan? 22. South Korea? 23. Belgium? 24. Mauritius? 25.Spain The Index assigns 53 countries to the next category, Flawed democracy Argentina, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cape Verde, Chi le, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Estonia, France, Ghana, Greece, Guyana, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Latvia, Lesotho, Lithuania, Macedonia, Malaysia, Mali, India, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Namibia, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, Zambia44 editTypes See also List of types of democracy Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in supposition and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. 4546 However, if any democracy is not structured so as to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its own favor, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy . 474849 Worlds states colored by form of government as of 20111 Presidential republics2 Semi-presidential republics2 Parliamentary republics2 Single-party republics Parliamentary primitive monarchies Absolute monarchies Military dictatorships Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch personally exercises power Republics with an executive president dependent on a parliament Countries which do not fit any of the above systems This defend was complied according to the Wikipedia list of countries by system of government. See there for sources. 2Several states constitutionally deemed to be multiparty republics are by and large described by outsiders as authoritarian states. This affair presents only the de jure form of government, and not the de facto degree of democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. edit Basic forms edit D irect main(prenominal) article Direct democracy Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The supporters of direct democracy argue that democracy is more than except a procedural issue. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to Landsgemeinde of the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden, example for direct democracy in Switzerland 1. Change constitutional laws, 2. Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws, 3.Give stuffing orders to elective officials, such as revoking them before the end of their elected term, or initiating a lawsuit for breakout a campaign promise. Of the three measures mentioned, most lock away in developed democracies directly. This is part of a inert shift towards direct democracies. Elements of direct democracy exist on a local level in many countries, though these systems often coexist with representative assemblies. Usually, this includes equal (and more or less direct) participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law. 14 editRepresentative of import article Representative democracy Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic. 50 The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two.Some representative democracies also control elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the peoples interest, they confine the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so. edit Parliamentary Main article Parliamentary system Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as irrelevant to a presidential rule wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters.Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. 5152535455 Parliamentary systems have the right to dismiss a Prime Minister at any point in time that they feel he or she is not doing their job to the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature sinks whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office by a majority support for his or her dismissal. 56 In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election whenever he or she so chooses, and typically the Prime Minister will hold an election when he or she knows that they are in good favor with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies particular(a) elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. edit Presidential Main article Presidential system Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through free and fair elections.The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. Elections typically have a fixed date and arent easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, the members of which are specifically appointed by the president himself. 56 The president cannot be easily take from office by the legislature, but he or she cannot remove members of the legislative branch any more easi ly.This provides some measure of separation of powers. In topic however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to occlusion the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operating theater of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas. 56 A semi-presidential system is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a ready minister and a president. The particular powers held by the flowering minister and president vary by country. 56 edit Constitutional Main article Constitutional democracy A constitutional democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties).In a constitutional democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to emerge from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to construct. In other words, citizens can vote with their feet or vote with their dollars, resulting in significant folksy government-by-the-masses that exercises many powers associated with formal government elsewhere. edit Hybrid Some modern democracies that are predominately representative in temper also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic.These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed hybridization democracies57 or semi-direct democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some U. S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. Although managed by a representative legislative body, Switzerland allows for initiatives and referendums a t both the local and federal levels. In the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum.The mob has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government. citation needed In the United States, no mechanisms of direct democracy exists at the federal level, but over half of the states and many localities provide for citizen-sponsored ballot initiatives (also called ballot measures, ballot questions or propositions), and the vast majority of states allow for referendums.Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. 58 In New England Town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This gains a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a state government which is representative. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have an opportunity to speak and by heard on political matters. 59 edit Variants edit Republic Main article Republicanism In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. 60 The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, avail for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. 61 The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy, often without the protection of a Constitution enshrining basic rights James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure.What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted,62 was that the government be bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend. As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after opus the U. S. constitution, a woman asked him Well, Doctor, what have we gota republic or a monarchy? . He replied A republicif you can keep it. 63 Queen Elizabeth II, a constitutional monarch. edit Constitutional monarchy Main article constitutional monarchyInitially after the American and French revolutions, the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an elite upper chamber, the members perhaps appointe d meritorious experts or having life sentence tenures, or should have a constitutional monarch with limited but real powers. Some countries (as Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, besides symbolic roles.Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these lost power (as in Britain) or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the United States). edit Socialist Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the undertaking (usually exercised through Soviet democracy) are some examples.Many democratic socialists and social democrats remember in a form of partic ipatory democracy and workplace democracy feature with a representative democracy. Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called liberal democracy, which they simply refer to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralized nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets).This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See Democracy in Marxism) Democracy cannot consist solely of elections that are nearly eternally fictitious and managed by rich landowners and professional politicians. Che Guevara,Speech, Uruguay, 196164 edit nihilist Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. The only form of democracy considered acceptable to many syndicalist s is direct democracy.Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognized that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. 65 However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchists for fence democracy,66 and says majority rule is consistent with anarchism. 67 Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can deflect individual liberty and opt in privilege of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhons position on direct democracy. 68 Henry David Thoreau, who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for a better government69 and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent. edit Demarchy Main article Demarchy Sometimes called democracy without elections, demarchy uses sortition to choo se decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impartial than an elected official.The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and is still used in modern jury selection. edit Consensus Main article Consensus democracy Consensus democracy requires varying degrees of consensus rather than just a mere democratic majority. It typically attempts to protect minority rights from domination by majority rule. edit Supranational fitting majority voting is designed by the conformity of Rome to be the principal method of scope decisions in the European Council of Ministers. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states.This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected. Some might consider the individuals being democratically represented to be states rather than people, as with many others. European Parliament members are democratically directly elected on the basis of universal suffrage, may be seen as an example of a supranational democratic institution. edit Non-governmental Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of communities and organizations.Many non-governmental organizations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are controlled by shareholders on the principle of one share, one vote. edit Theory A marble statue of Aristotle. edit Aristotle Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/polity), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to polity). 7071 For Aristotle the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy the citizens can have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should make its aim. There are two main aspects of freedom being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and to be able to live as one pleases. But one fixings of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn for the popular principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, .And one is for a man to live as he likes for they say that this is the office of liberty, inasmuch as to live not as one likes is the life of a man that is a slave. Aristotle,Politics 1317b (Book 6, Part II) edit Rationale Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of the fundamental rationale for democracy aggregative democracy, delibe rative democracy, and radical democracy. 72 edit Aggregative The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to flirt citizens preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt.Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should chiefly focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. contrasting variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in annual elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not rule because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded.Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. 73 modern-day proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski , Richard Posner. According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites.Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter with half to his left and the other half to his right. This is not actually a preferred outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are inevitable to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments.Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy. 74 Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy.First and foremost among these institutions is the regular happening of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. 75 Somewho? see a problem with the wealthy having more influence and therefore argue for reforms like campaign finance reform. Somewho? may see it as a problem that only voters decide policy, as opposed to a majority rule of the entire population.This can be used as an argument for making political participation mandatory, like compulsory voting or for making it more patient (non-compulsory) by simply refusing power to the government until the full majority feels inclined to speak their minds. edit Deliberative Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregration of preferences that occurs in voting.Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of nonequivalent political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. 767778 If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. edit bow Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society.Democracys role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, objection and antagonisms in decision making processes. edit Ideal forms edit comprehensive Main article Inclusive Democracy Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political childbed that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life political democracy in the form of personal assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i. . self-management in places of work and education, and bionomic democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in Towards An Inclusive Democracy and was further developed in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The global Journal of Inclusive Democracy. The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the Demotic assembly, i. e. he assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods of large cities. An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi. Thus, their role is rigorously administrative and practical, not one of policy-making like that of representatives in representative democracy.The citizen body is advised by experts but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker . authorisation can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils. much(prenominal) delegation is made, in principle, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body. Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates. edit